Russias Economy During Yeltsin Era

Russias Economy During Yeltsin EraAnalyse the principle conundrums cladding the Russian frugality at the residuum of the Yeltsin era. How take a crap these problems been tack conduct?AbstractThe following dissertation will analyse the principle problems veneering the Russian delivery at the end of the Yeltsin era. In many a(prenominal) view these principle problems face up the Russian economic system stemmed from the sparing and establishmental disintegration of the Soviet Union combined with how effectively or ineffectively the Yeltsin institution had attempted to deal with those problems. As will be discussed the principle frugal problems that faced the Russian Federation in 1992 were daunting, and therefore it is non surprising that or so of these problems remained unsolved and were bequeathed to the incoming Putin judicature after Yeltsins surprise resignation at the end of 1999. Yeltsin had seemed to be Russias policy-making saviour in terrific 1991 when he led the resistance to the attempted coup of Soviet hard-liners a pipst Gorbachev. The failure of that coup inevitably accelerated the demise of the Soviet Union. However, the Russian economy would experiment very much harder to tackle than desperate Soviet generals and KGB chiefs.1 The principle problems of the Russian economy can be arguably traced back to the inefficiencies of the Soviet Unions drop economy and its massive military expenditure during the Cold War. These economic problems accelerated the demise of the Soviet Union itself and made it difficult to make the economic spiritual rebirth to capitalism without major economic implications.2The Soviet Union for either its economic faults had at least bring home the bacond a basic standard of living, which meant that none of its people voracious or were in severe economic distress. This was despite a stagnant economy, although its economic stableness crumbled with remark up to(p) speed. For much of the Yeltsin era the Russian economy could non match the basic living standards of the old Soviet Union for many of its citizens.3 It could be argued that the transition to capitalism contributed to the worsening of the principle problems outlined below, and that ill suasion out economic policies since have made it more difficult for those problems to be effectively tackled during and after the Yeltsin era.Among the main themes of this dissertation is that the Yeltsin governing did non have a consistent set of economic and semi policy-making policies to solve the principle problems of the Russian economy, which in turn hampered the effective tackling of those problems. The so called young re occasions led by Yegor Gaider and Anatoly Chubais had the some thought out strategies for the Russian economy, thus far they did not have a constant control over the governments economic policy passim the Yeltsin era.4 Besides not all the economic strategies advocated by the young reformers prove to b e effective once the Russian government put those strategies into practice. The ways in which all the principle problems of the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era were all interconnected are arguably obvious and apparent. To a certain extent it will be argued that Boris Yeltsin himself did not help the Russian government to tackle the principle problems of the Russian economy. The link between principle problems in the Russian economy and political ones plus social factors will be discussed when and where appropriate.This dissertation will seek to examine the reasons for the Russian economy winning over a go to achieve real growth, despite following the policies that it was advised would promote stability, liberalised and privatised economy. This dissertation will attempt to analyse whether the economic transition achieved anything at all to excuse an estimated 47 % decrease in living standards between 1991 and 2000. How many Russians believed that the detrimental eff ects of the principle problems of the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era could have been averted or tackled earlier?5When Boris Yeltsin assumed the presidency of the Russian Federation it was still part of the Soviet Union and not even a sovereign severalize in its own right also it did not have control over economic policy. Yeltsin presided over the dismantling of Communist control in Russia, yet he found it very difficult to construct capitalism from virtually non-existent foundations as any form of capitalist economic activity had been illegal for much of the previous 75 years after the Communist Revolution.6 By the time Yeltsin left his prexyial office, the Russian Federation was a plenteousy independent enjoin that nominally, if not completely become a liberal democracy with a capitalist market economy. However, the dual Russian transitions to liberal democracy and capitalism from an despotic Communist State proved difficult and many have argued that those tran sitions remain incomplete. The incompleteness of the transition to capitalism and the political and economic make up of the Russian federation had a strong influence upon the principle problems veneering the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era. Russia had been used to authoritarian government with state controlled primeval be after for the economy so the process of ease had been uneven and had unwelcome social and economic consequences across Russia. The legacy of misguided Soviet economic planning took much effort and a great deal of suffering for the poorest sections of the Russian society to break, it seemed to help a minority of Russians make their fortunes, whilst leaving the rest to baulk for themselves. In Russia the correlation between political and economic weaknesses arguably helped to make the post-communist economic and democratic situation imperfect and even corrupt.7 The move to loan capitalism to Russia in less than a decade was as revolutionary as Sta lins attempts to achieve industrialisation during collectivisation, yet the opposite aims of privatising the economy. The aim of the Yeltsin government to bring capitalism was a sensible notion, yet the ways that it was implemented caused controversy as well as arguably increasing the impact of the principle problems that untune the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era.8Decline and signs of recovery 1992 1998The initial bout of economic shock therapy administered in 1992 brought about hyperinflation, the closure of many factories and enterprises, which led inevitably to mass unemployment. Gaider and the other young reformers in the Yeltsin government had to end state subsidies to factories and intoduce the lifting of price controls at one go rather than to introduce reforms gradually. It was gravelly economic medicine for a country burdened with the consequences of communisms profound economic and political failures, although Yeltsin did not have the political strength o r motivation to carry out shock therapy as extensively as Gaider and the other young reformers had originally intended. Through much of the 1990s the young reformers and the richest entrepreneurs cognize as the oligarchs competed for political influence and effect, whilst contending to gain control of the Russian economy or a share of its greatest spoils. Neither the young reformers nor the oligarchs were popular with the bulk of the Russian people, yet none of them particularly cared. They were not involved in popularity contests, they were arguing over power and riches. Sometimes they might do things that were good for the Russian economy, yet they were mainly interested in achieving their own agendas than serving the national interests of Russia.9The weakness of the Russian economy further weakened the position of the Russian government at the start of the Yeltsin era. These were political as well as economic weaknesses that still existed when Yeltsin left office. Yeltsins firs t term was at a lower placemined by political disputes with the Russian Supreme Soviet, which Yeltsin eventually closed down and replaced with a new parliament, the Duma. Yeltsin had to maintain his political position whilst attempting to prevent the Communists and nationalists making sufficient electoral gains to restrict his political room to manoeuvre. Yeltsin was able to maintain his hold on power, despite a strong challenge from the Communists after his re-election in 1996. Yeltsins second term in office highlighted his inability to find a Prime Minister that was politically reliable, could manage, or even reduce the weakness of the Russian economy and who did not in heroicct request to assume the presidency as Yeltsins replacement before Yeltsin was due to leave office in June 2000. Yeltsins second term witnessed his problems with ill wellness worsen, which in turn meant that the Russian economy as well as the Russian government was not as effectively managed as they needed to be. When Yeltsin positive the virtually unheard of Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister he believed that he had found a man that could fix the Russian economy and solve its political problems. Perhaps more importantly for Yeltsin and his family, Putin was unwilling to prosecute either him or his relatives for their links to the corruption and inefficiency of the Yeltsin era.10The Russian economy did show signs of revival towarfareds the end of Yeltsins first presidential term, yet in many respects such a revival was more apparent than real. The vast majority of Russians were economically worse off than they had been before the collapse of the Soviet Union. Declining inflation and unemployment rates did not benefit most of them, especially those that lost their jobs, their savings, and all hope with the shock therapy of 1992 which resulted in inflation rates of about 2,000%. The new Russian economy seemed to benefit former Communist party officials bureaucrats, factory, and state f arm managers that managed to gain control of former state owned enterprises. The other main beneficiaries were the handful of entrepreneurs, subsequently known as the oligarchs that had become very wealthy through their links with Yeltsin. The Russian economy for the first time also had millions of shareholders eager to show their capitalist credentials. The Russian government did not however, share in the beginning of the Russian economy during the inwardness of the 1990s, the strength and capabilities of the Yeltsin government to deal with economic problems was undermined by falling revenues. Government revenues had been reduced through the economic contraction of the early 1990s, higher outlay on social security, lower global prices for Russian oil exports, plus extensive tax evasion. Not that anybody had to deliberately evade give their taxes given the massive surface of the tax arrears owed to the Russian government. The breakdown of the Soviet Union led to other problems s uch as lower exports to the other former Soviet republics and the inability of countries such as the Ukraine to wage for Russian gas and oil.11The table below that shows the annual changes in Russias Gross Domestic Product (gross domestic product) figures between 1992 to 1999 amply demonstrates the inglorious state of the Russian economy throughout much of the Yeltsin era.12Stock market set and Government weaknessThe perilous financial position of the Yeltsin government itself proved to undermine the revival of the Russian economy as it directly contributed to the collapse of the Russian stock market in 1998. The crash of 1998 ruined millions of small-scale shareholders in Russia and reduced the scale of foreign coronation in the Russian economy. Russian investors were in effect made to suffer due to the ineptness of the Russian government in raising enough taxes to run the country and avoid bankruptcy.13 Under Yeltsin the Russian State had lost out in terms of revenue and econo mic independence to the oligarchs, profits that should have lined the coffers of the Kremlin lined the pockets of Boris Berezovsky, Vladimir Potanin, and the other oligarchs. All of these factors combined to make the insolvency of the Russian State as principle problem of the Russian economy. Restoring the solvency of the government would increase its scope to solve the other principle problems of the Russian economy, as well as restore the political authority of the state.14 When Vladimir Putin assumed power his government was faced not only(prenominal) with the task of restoring the solvency of the Russian state, he also had to restore the faith of Russians and foreigners that the government would not default on its loans. The crash of August 1998 had led to the Yeltsin government defaulting on $40 billion worth of foreign loans. The crisis in confidence also saw the rouble decline to a third of its pre-crash value.15 The Russian economy was not helped by international bodies suc h as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or foreign governments most notably the United States by the amounts of capital as the Russian government would have liked.16As Prime Minister Vladimir Putin had already shown his commitment to restoring the solvency and the power of the Russian State. Putins strength of character plus his determination to succeed contributed to Yeltsins decision to resign and maximise Putins chances of retaining the presidency after the 2000 presidential election. Putin was elected president in 2000 and claimed the credit for Russias improving economy as well as apparent victory in the war against Chechen separatists. Putin put himself off as the man capable of curing Russias profound economic, social, and political problems. If confidence alone was the sole key to solving the principle problems of the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era, then Russia should have been a prosperous state the day Putin entered the Kremlin.17Principle Problems of th e Russian EconomyThe first principle problem facing the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era was the incomplete nature of the transition to a capitalist market economy. The support of Boris Yeltsin for the measures needed for a full transition to a market economy was not consistent throughout his time in office. The economic reforms introduced in 1992 hit the Russian economy harder than the resembling reforms introduced in former Communist states such as Poland and Hungary. Russia had a larger economy, more state enterprises and factories plus a much longer period under communist control than any of the former communist states Central and Eastern Europe had. The Yeltsin government received plenty of advice as to whether to introduce economic liberalisation all at once or gradually, although at that point there was no hard evidence as to which approach would be the most roaring in the long run. In the short run economic contraction was expected before the Russian economy w ould show signs of improvement and growth.18 However, the period of economic contraction was longer than many experts had predicted, although the sheer scale of the problems facing the Russian economy throughout the Yeltsin era were enormous. A healthy Boris Yeltsin, despite his leave out of experience concerning capitalist economics, might have given the government more urgency in tackling those economic proms it could. However, during his second term as president Yeltsin suffered from the affects of heavy boozing and a severe heart condition. Given the prominence of presidential power in the Russian political system having an incapacitated president was detrimental to the tackling of Russias economic problems. Not only was Yeltsin frequently ill he would intervene in the government at some inopportune moments. Yeltsin had a tendency to turn on Prime Ministers and cabinets on a whim. If a Prime Minister proved incapable of tackling the countrys many social, economic, and politic al problems they would be re go. Paradoxically if a Prime Minister was too successful in resolving those problems or appeared to be more popular than Yeltsin they were also removed from office.19A principle problem facing the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era was that a proper banking system similar to those operating in more established capitalist economies had not been fully veritable to aid the Russian economys transition in to a capitalist economy. There are various reasons why the lack of a fully developed banking system became a principle problem facing the Russian economy. The lack of such a properly developed and regulated system hindered and deterred foreign businesses from spend in the Russian economy, as potential investors could not be sure of where their money was going. The lack of foreign investment slowed down economic growth in the financial sector of the Russian economy. Growth in the financial sector was needed to compensate for the contractions in t he industrial and agricultural sectors of the economy.20 The lack of a properly regulated banking system also aided the money laundering of illegal profits from the unionised offensive gangs that seemed to grow after the Soviet Union collapsed. Organised crime gangs had been able to take advantage of the Russian governments struggle to maintain full political and economic control of Russia. The unregulated nature of the Russian banking system did not help stem the flow of financial capital out of the Russian economy during the Yeltsin era. The Yeltsin government seemed unable or unwilling to take effective measures to stop the flow of capital that was so detrimental to the Russian economy. If the Russian government had been able to attract as much investment into the Russian economy as there was capital exported away from it then the economy would have achieved greater stability and growth. However, the IMF made economic aid and loans to the Russian government conditional upon th e Russians on improving the Russian banking system to international standards of performance and regulation. The Russian government could in return claim that Russias economic problems would have decreased if the Russians had received all the international aid and investments that had been promised in the early 1990s. Whilst aid was slow in coming forward the foreign debts owed by Russia from $97 billion in 1992 to a burdensome $152 billion by 1998. During the same period the amount of GDP the Russian government had to use to service its foreign debts doubled to 60%. That was money that the Russian government could have spent in more fruitful ways such as increasing spending on non-military research or tackling the social and economic problems that were reducing the performance of the Russian economy.21A principle problem facing the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era was organised crime. Organised crime gangs, as previously noted, took advantage of the lack of political and economic control in Russia. The way in which the transition to a capital economy in Russia had been attempted had benefited organised crime gangs. Organised crime had existed in the Soviet Union due to the people wanting consumer goods as well as drugs that were not available through state enterprises. Under the Soviet economy system all private economic activity had been illegal. Organised crime gangs find post-Communist Russia an easy place to operate with little fear of macrocosm caught, rival gangs were more of a threat to each other than the Russian police were to them. If the gangs could not bribe the police they could frequently outfight them. The financial dire straits of the Russian government meant that there were not enough police or customs officials to deter, let alone catch organised crime gangs and their members. ill or infrequently paid police and customs officials had little motivation in stopping criminals, including those that resisted the temptation to take bribes.22Another principle problem facing the Russian economy at the end of the Yeltsin era was the informal economy in which employers paid in cash, whilst neither they or their workers paid taxes on their pay or profits. However, the informal economy had in many respects helped to maintain the Soviet economy, despite its in efficiencies and stagnation. The economic reforms introduced at the start of the Yeltsin era offered chances and opportunities to organised crime gangs and individual entrepreneurs to make their fortunes. Previous experience of working in the informal economy did prove advantageous to many Russians wanting to make their fortunes or faced with the more mundane task of surviving.23 The Russians have a long tradition of people who know the right people within the bureaucracy being able to further their own position. Corruption, bribery, and the calling in of favours could make all the difference between success and failure during the Yeltsin era. The informal e conomy grew due to the greater economic freedom and the unregulated nature of the Russian economy once market liberalisation had occurred. For many Russians being part of the informal economy was the only way to make ends meet. The Russian government had drastically reduced the number of state owned enterprises, whilst cutting subsidies to the newly privatised enterprises. Private enterprises in Russia would frequently not pay their workers for months to try to stay in business as they found it very difficult to survive against foreign competitors. Not being paid for months or only been paid in kind prompted workers further into the informal economy. Due to the lack of money available to the Russian government public sector employees were not always paid either. Desperation forced many Russians into holding two or three jobs to make ends meet. Without the informal economy the social and economic problems facing Russia could have been worse. 24 When private and public sector workers were paid, the high inflation at the beginning of the Yeltsin era meant that most Russians had to find extra sources of income or face economic ruin. It is difficult to have an accurate idea of the informal economy within framework of the Russian economy in terms of its share of GDP and its authentic size. Statistics from the Russian government were even in the 1990s domestically or internationally known for their accuracy. Given the lack of resources available to the Russian police, customs officials, and bureaucrats it is not surprising that few people were caught for their involvement within the informal economy or that Russian officials could be bribed to turn a blind eye. During the Yeltsin era, the Russian government estimated that 25% of Russias GDP was generated by the informal economy. Other sources such as the IMF and the Russian press put the figure as high as 80%.25The harsh economic realities of life in Yeltsins Russia meant that corruption and unregulated economic act ivity increased dramatically. Organised crime gangs were able to gain from peoples misery and desperation in terms of increased levels of drug taking and prostitution. The collapse of Soviet authority and the difficulty of Russia and its neighbours had in securing their shared borders had given the organised crime gangs the opportunity to expand their activities as well as their profits.26 These increases in gang activities lead to higher levels of crime, as people had to fixture to desperate measures to feed drug habits and gangs fought each other. Although the outbreaks of gang warfare witnessed in cities such as St Petersburg can mainly be regarded as a constabulary and order issue, such events did have an economic impact during the Yeltsin era. Economic hardship, drug taking, and prostitution have heavily contributed to declining life expectancy rates. Many of the people that should be the most economically active in Russia are either working informally and therefore not payi ng taxes or they have died prematurely. Drug taking and prostitution have increased the spread of AIDS so that Russia has one of the highest infection rates in the world. The demographic decline in Russia, if left ungoverned could have major implications for the Russian economy as well as disastrous effects on its society. Organised crime may help many Russians survive from day to day, yet it makes some gang members very wealthy whilst depriving the Russian government of much needed revenue and leaving the cost of pick out out serious law and order as well as health problems. Organised gangs were also able to take advantage of the Russian governments wars in Chechnya during the Yeltsin era by selling drugs and weapons to both Russian troops and Chechen rebel fighters.27 Overall the effect on the population of the Russian Federation was an sightly annual decrease in the population of around 750,000 people throughout the entire 1999s.28At the end of the Yeltsin era another principl e problem facing the Russian economy was the uncompetitiveness of many industries and businesses. Again the legacy of the economic system of the Soviet Union plays its part in the weaknesses of the Russian economy. The Soviet system had not produced words that Russian consumers or potential foreign consumers had wanted. Instead the Soviet economic planners had determined return levels and the types of goods produced. Once state subsidies were removed all factories and enterprises and the Russian economy was open to unrestricted foreign imports. Russian enterprises were forced to close, drastically cut their workforces, or not pay their workers for long periods. Some businesses resorted to not paying their taxes as part of their efforts to stay operative.29 One of the leading oligarchs, Mikhail Khodorkovsky estimated that upwards of a million Russian enterprises should have been declared bankrupt. In 1996 the Yeltsin government stated that around 35% of Russian factories and busines ses were on the verge of bankruptcy. The Russian government estimated that 80% of Russian factories and businesses were in financial dire straits.30 The instability of the rouble and a lack of foreign currencies and investment also made it difficult for Russian enterprises to remain competitive. De-valuations of the rouble would briefly aid competitiveness, yet did not offer a semipermanent solution. Lack of foreign investment and profits made it more difficult for Russian factories to replace obsolete equipment or the latest training for their workers. The standard of bringing up in Russia tended to be high, although there was a lack of people trained in Information Technology and more advanced industrial procedures, especially impertinent of the military research establishment.31 The Yeltsin government and the young reformers had hoped that large-scale foreign investment would revive even the most outdated enterprises in the Russian economy. Although, not all of the potential fo reign investors were put of by the lack of market regulation, the less than welcoming reception received from officials, Russian businesses, and the Russian public deterred many investors from investing in Russia.32The young reformers had hoped that their policies would only lead to a short-term contraction of the Russian economy, with a more competitive and modernised Russia emerging from shock therapy. They and Yeltsin were caught by surprise when the affect of shock therapy lasted throughout the Yeltsin era. A sharp contraction in the production levels of Russian heavy industries was expected and indeed occurred. However, the biggest falls in production witnessed during the Yeltsin era was in the production of consumer goods rather than in the more traditional heavy industries. Whilst production in those heavy industries of coal, steel, oil and gas declined by 45% during the 1990s that was not as bad as the decline in production of consumer goods. The move to a capitalist market economy had been expect to provide stimulation for increases in the production of Russian made consumer goods such as colour television sets, personal computers, and video recorders. Instead production of these consumer items declined dramatically, by 80% for television sets, 60% for personal computers, and 99% for video recorders. A section of the Russian economy that the government had believed would promote economic growth and provide jobs for those that lost their jobs in other sectors of the economy ceased to exist to any meaningful extent. There are two fairly straightforward explanations for the slump in the production of consumer goods. Those Russians that could generate television sets, personal computers, and video recorders brought more reliable and fashionable imported foreign brands. Through the liberalisation of the Russian economy and the efforts of the informal economy such goods became more widely available if not affordable throughout the Yeltsin era. For the poor est sections of Russian society that had their savings wiped out by inflation and their prospects diminished by unemployment or underemployment throughout the Yeltsin era there were little prospects of them buying the essentials to live let alone Russian or non-Russian consumer goods. The poor could not even afford the low quality and cheaper Russian made goods.33A principle problem of the Russian economy closely related to its uncompetitiveness was the increasing shortages of workers, skilled ones in particular. At the start of the Yeltsin era the severe contraction of the Russian economy meant that unemployment had increased. It was not only capital that left the Russian economy once the country moved to a market economic system. Some of the brightest and most capable people working in the Russian economy left the country for better pay and prospects abroad. Of course, not everybody was able to take the opportunity to earn his or her future in exile. In some respects the most harm done to the Russian economy was by the calibre of academics and technicians that left the country. The Yeltsin government could not do as much to halt the brain drain as it had to cut spending on higher education, health services and most notably on defence projects and research. Cuts in defence spending could be justified, as a war with the United States and its NATO allies seemed impossible. The shortage of skilled workers was worsened by the reduction in life expectancy, especially amongst men. The effects of lower life expectancy were mult

Phonetics in learning English

Ph anetics in learning faceIntroductionThe core of phonetic is to identify the characteristics of the honests which human begins fag end use in language. Sounds can basically be divided into ii types vowel unspoilts and harmonizeds. Vowels be produced by altering the shape of the vocal tract by spatial relation of the tongue and lips. Consonants argon sounds which be produced by the partial or complete construction of the vocal tract.The picture of how your address looks when you say sounds. (Sharon Widmayer and Holly Gray) image of articulatorsYour lips, teeth, tongue, nose, and roof of your mouth be all important for orthoepy. The epiglottis is also important. That is the thing that you use to hold your breath and to swallow. It closes your windpipe so the argument cannot come out.The components of teaching the sound of side1. VowelsVowels are usually described by reference to five criteria, and these are adequate as a basic token of reference, although some vowel soun d require more specifi reproduceionthe height reached by the highest point of the tongue (high, mid, low) ,the part of the tongue which is raised (front, center, back),the shape mannequined by the lips (unrounded or spread, rounded)the couch of the diffused palate for oral vowels, lowered for nasal vowels,the duration of the vowel ( in short, long)Some Generalizations (Not Rules) about English vowels and spellingEnglish vowels corroborate long and short forms.The long form is the name of the letter The short form is as followsLong vowels are usually ( merely not al modes) indicated by a second (silent) vowel in the same syllableShort vowels usually stand alone within a syllable and are lots followed by double conformables2. Consonant soundsConsonant sounds have three basic features in their articulation place of articulation, manager of articulation, and voicing.Consonants produce sounds that are more consistent and easier to identify than vowels. at that placefore, they mak e a good commencement point for learning to read.Initially, work should be done on identifying beginning consonant sounds (ex t-t-t tulip).After that, activities can focus on identifying concluding consonant sounds (ex cat ends with the t-t-t sound)When children learn to recognize the sounds of consonants at the beginning and end positions of words, they gain the ability to look at a word and make a reasonable work out as to what it might be. Viewing the word in the context of a picture will help reinforce this skill.(for example, a picture of a quest after with the word DOG underneath. The ability to sound out the D and G letters will help the child identify that the word is DOG, not puppy or dalmation)The ideas and activities presented in this section will help children develop the following skillsidentifying beginning consonant soundsdistinguishing between two or more beginning consonant soundsidentifying ending consonant soundsdistinguishing between two or more ending conso nantschoosing words that have a particular beginning or ending consonantThe following diagram shows the names of the various parts of the mouth involved in the production of English consonantsA = nasal cavityB = alveolar rooftreeC = hard palateD = soft palate or velumE = lips and teethF = tongue 1 tip 2 blade 3 bodyG = uvulaH = larynx and vocal cordsvFor each consonant, two parts of the mouth are involved, and the name given to it reflects this. Starting from the front, some consonants are made using both lips try saying /p/ /b/ /w/ and /m/ and these are called bilabial consonants (bilabial = two lips)Now try /f/ and /v/. This time its the bottom lip and top teeth which are involved. These are labiodental consonants (labio = lip, dental = teeth).For more or less all the other consonants, the tongue will interact with another part of the mouth. The name of the consonant doesnt include a reference to the tongue however, just the point of the mouth which it meets. So for instanc e, sounds made by an interaction between the tongue and the teeth are just called dental sounds. These are /t/, /d/ and the voiced and voteless th sounds / / as in this and // as in thick .If you run your tongue back behind your teeth, you come to a bony ridge called the alveolar ridge. Several sounds are made on or just behind the ridge /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ /r/ and /l/Moving back from the alveolar ridge you come to a similarly hard but smoother zone the hard palate. /j/ as in yellow is a palatal sound, are as the highlighted consonants in the words sheep, measure, cheap and jeep. There is also a palatal version of the /r/ consonant. If you found it strange that it was classed before as alveolar, you may have been saying the palatal version.Notice that there is now a difference in the focusing the tongue is used. For the dental and alveolar sounds, it was the tip of the tongue which was involved. For palatal sounds, however, its the blade of the tongue, and as we move further b ack to the velum (the soft part of the palate, closest to the throat) its the back, or body, of the tongue. The velar sounds are /g/ and /k/ and the final consonants in sing and in bottle often called the dark l.This leaves only the consonant /h/ which is produced by air passing from the windpipe through the vocal cords, or glottis. Its therefore a glottal sound.Place of Articulation tells us where the consonants are produced, but we also need to consider Manner of Articulation how they are produced. The most important categories arePlosives Plosive sounds (also called stop sounds) are formed by the air being completely blocked in the mouth and then suddenly released. For example, /k/ and /g/ are formed when the back of the tongue rises to the velum and momently blocks the air. These are therefore velar plosives. The other plosive consonants of English are the bilabial plosives /p/ and /b/ and the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/. Some varieties of English London English for examp le also include a glottal stop which substitutes for the /t/ consonant between vowels. Imagine a London orthoepy of butter, for example.Fricatives Fricatives are formed when the two parts of the mouth approach each other closely, not completely blocking the passage of the air, but forcing it through a confined space. The air molecules start to bump against each other causing audible friction. Try the palatal fricative the sh sound. You can feel your tongue up close to the alveolar ridge and the air passing through the small space left. The full list of English fricatives is labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/ dental fricatives the two th sounds alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/ palatal fricatives // as in in sheep and // as in measure and the glottal fricative /h/.Affricates Affricates are really a plosive and a fricative combined. The air is initially blocked, and then released through a narrow passageway like a fricative. English has two affricates, the initial sounds in cheap and jeep / / and //. These are usually classed as palato-alveolar affricates, as theyre made in a position half way between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate.Nasals when a nasal sound is produced, the air is prevented from going out through the mouth and is instead released through the nose. There are three English nasals the bilabial nasals /m/ and /n/ and the velar nasal // the final consonant in sing.Approximant Approximants are a bit of a hotch-potch category, and contain some of the most problematic sounds in English. Well look at them in detail another time, but for now will dissever them together as sounds produced when the airstream moves around the tongue and out of the mouth with almost no obstruction. The English approximants are the alveolar approximants /l/ and /r/, the palatal approximant /j/, as in yes, and the dark l the velar approximant as in bottle. Keep in mind, however, that this is a simplification.This leaves the third distinguishing category whic h we discussed in the outlive article voicing. If the vocal cords are vibrated when the sound is made, the sound is voiced. If the are not, it is unvoiced. Several of the English consonants come in pairs. They have the same place and room of articulation and are distinguished only by voicing (1). For example /t/ and /d/ are both alveolar plosives, but /t/ is unvoiced while /d/ is voiced. In the summarizing chart below, where pairs occur the unvoiced sound is always given first.3. Sounds in connected linguistic processSounds are seldom produced in isolation. In connected speech (that is, any sequence spoken at natural speed), many sounds tend to be altered of modified by the sound immediately before of after them, especially at the boundaries between words.According to the Excerpt from Study Guide, Connected Speech is the key to gaining a natural, smooth-flowing style of speech. populate do not speak in separate words they speak in logical connected groups of words. Even native speakers sometimes stumble everywhere their words because they are unaware of the little tricks for avoiding the pitfalls. Trained actors, of course, are able to deliver lengthy, complex, and even tongue-twisting passages flawlessly. This is not a gift. They have simply learned the rules for linking one word into another with intention. When youve finished this tape, youll know the rules, too and with practice youll become a fluent, polished speaker.These are the steps for speaking in connected speech Direct Linking Linking final consonants directly into vowels Play and Link Linking final consonants fully played and linked to fully played non-related consonants. Prepare and Link Prepare for the final consonant, and execute related consonant that it is linking into. Weak Forms A lot of the very small connecting words in speech are so de-emphasized, or unstressed, that they often take on a Weak Form. Contractions We use these words so much that, we usually contract them together. Wor d Endings and Contractions Common Word Endings (Suffixes).These are for the most part unstressed, and should be treated like weak forms. Dialogues Practicing Word Endings and Contractions These dialogues have a double emphasis. Practicing both Word Endings and Contractions within a context.ConclusionIf other aspects of pronunciation are dealt with efficiently, sounds do not present such a problem. Again, much of the difficulty which students have when pronouncing English sounds comes, not from a physical inability to form them, but from language interference. This occurs when the student knows how an English word is spelt and pronounces it as if was written in his own language.It is important for a teacher to know how sounds are formed so that he understands what his students are doing wrong.ReferencesJohn Haycraft. (1978). An introduction to English language teaching. Longman Longman Group Ltd.1978Jones, D.(1998). The Pronunciation of English. Cambridge Cambridge University Press. http//www.kidzone.ws/kindergarten/consonants-intro.htmKelly, G.(2000). How to Teach Pronunciation. Harlow Peason.Ladefoged, P.(2005). Vowels and Consonants Oxford Blackwell.Steele,V.(2005) Connected Speech (Onlline).http//www.teachingenglish.org.uk/(2005, May 29)

Computer Education Should Be Compulsory :: Argumentative Persuasive Technology Education

Students spend five years at high school learning more things, but how much of what they learn is really useful? For example, many students forget a lot of what they learn or so history and calculus because they have no practical use for what they have learned. Computers, however, are now a part of our everyday lives. Therefore, students should be required to learn how to use reck unrivaledrs because they will benefit in both their personal and professional life. In particular, learning about computers can help you to organize you finances better, to gather information easily, and to enjoy a variety of recreation activities. (103) For both personal and professional needs, a computer is of great help in taking care of financial matters. One way that computers help is in paying bills. Almost all bills, such as electric and telephone bills for the home, credit card payments, and installments on a car can be give usi ng a computer. Of course, one needs profit access for this. Another financial convenience offered by computers is paying for purchases. In a similar way to paying bills, purchases can be ordered and paid for using the Internet and a credit card number. Then the item purchased can be delivered directly to your front door. Finally, a student at university, or someone who has graduated from high school, can take care of banking by computer over the Internet. In this case, one can transfer money from one bank account to another without going to the bank, sending a fax, or even making a telephone call. (155)

Tensions in Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening :: Stopping Woods Snowy Evening

Tensions in Stopping by Woods     The poem as a whole, of course, encodes many of the tensions between popular and elite poetry. For example, it appears in an anthology of childrens make-up alongside Amy Lowells "Crescent Moon," Joyce Kilmers "Trees," and Edward Lears "Owl and the Pussy-Cat." Pritchard situates it among a number of poems that "have ... repelled or embarrassed more highbrow sensibilities," which suggests the question "havent these poems The Pasture, Stopping by Woods..., Birches, Mending Wall been so much exclaimed oer by people whose poetic taste is dubious or hardly existent, that on these grounds alone Frost is to be distrusted?" The views represented--and the representations of the poem itself, affiliated with the recreate of Dickinson, Longfellow, Dante, and the Romantics--range from emphasis on its gentility to its modernist ambiguity. Nevertheless, more than one critic underscores its threat to individualism, its "dangerous prospect of boundarilessness," which suggests the masculine conception of poetic selfhood with which the poem is commonly framed.   Seasons were a conventional means to illustrate feelings, as in Helen Hunt Jacksons "Down to Sleep" November woods are bare and still     November days are clear and bright separately noon burns up the daysprings chill     The mornings snow is gone by night     Each day my steps grow slow, grow light, As by dint of the woods I reverent creep, Watching all things breathe "down to sleep." I neer knew before what beds,     Fragrant to smell, and soft to touch, The forest sifts and shapes and spreads     I never knew before how much     Of human sound there is in such Low tones as through the forest sweep When all wild things lie "down to sleep." Each day I find new coverlids     Tucked in and more sweet eyes shut tight Sometimes the neutral mother bids     Her ferns kneel down full in my sight     I hear their chorus of "good night," And half I smile, and half I weep, sense of hearing while they lie "down to sleep." November woods are bare and still     November days are bright and good Lifes noon burns up lifes morning chill     Lifes night rests feet which long have stood     Some warm soft bed, in field or wood, The mother will not fail to keep, Where we can "lay us down to sleep."

Amos 9 :: essays research papers fc

Exegetical Paper Amos 95-10-I will be examining Amos 95-10The message that the author is trying to convey in Amos 95-10 is that YHWH has proven himself to the people to be a trustworthy and loyal God. He helped resurrect Israel, the Philistines and the Arameans. In turn these people, particularly the Israelites, have betrayed his trust by acting sinfully toward the kingdom of Israel. The Lord YHWH will judge those people of Israel who are called to do right plainly who choose to do wrong. The wrongdoers being those that have acted sinfully. Amos, in vision, saw the Lord standing upon the altar at Bethel. God has come for iodine thing and one thing alone, judgment. There is no escaping the Lord now, for wherever he stands, one can be seen. YHWH has an inescapable presence. Those whom he opposes can find no furnish wherever they go, his eyes will follow. Wherever sinners flee from YHWHs justice, it will overtake them. Not only does God have an inescapable presence, he to a fault h as the power to do virtually whatsoeverthing imaginable with the Earth. As mentioned in Amos 95-6 The Lord, the LORD Almighty, he who touches the earth and it melts, and all who live in it mournthe self-coloured land rises like the Nile, then sinks like the river of Egypthe who builds his lofty palace in the nirvanas and sets its foundation on the Earth, who calls for the waters of the sea and pours them out over the face of the landthe LORD is his name. Those whom sin or rebel against God will seek an unwanted response. Whether that unwanted resonse be an earthquake, volcano or any other natural disaster. If one is respectful of YHWH they will be respected back in turn and will someday be brought to enlightenment. Those whom God brings to heaven by his grace, shall never be cast down but those who seek to climb up by vain confidence in themselves, will be cast down and filled with shame and embarrassment. That which makes escape impossible. YHWH will set his eyes upon them for e vil, non for good. If one is honestly sin-free they will someday find heaven but as for those whom have sinned and then turn around and to try and make it up to the Lord, they will never seek his approval therefore not resorting to heaven.

The Zoo Story by Edward Albee Essay -- essays research papers

In a crowded city such as Manhattan, it was no wonder that a globe like Jerry snarl lonely. He was without a friend, a mother and father, and the typical wife, two children, and a dog, that many others had. Jerry was thrown in a world that he felt did not want him, and his human flaw of wanting to escape loneliness led to his tragic death. In Edward Albees play, The Zoo Story, all Jerry wanted was to be heard and understood, and in the end, after sharing his life story with a complete stranger, he got his final wish - death. The Zoo Story not only tells of the alienation of man in modern society, but also reflects the philosophy of twentieth century existentialism.Jerry made a conscious choice of wanting to end his life, while Peter, a man that chose to act as the guinea pig and stayed and listened to Jerrys story, made a conscious choice of picking up same knife that killed Jerry. Although it was Peter who held the knife that killed Jerry, it was Jerry who took the responsibility to - in spite of great effort and pain &8211 wipe the knife handle clean of fingerprints to allow no trace of the murderer. However, although Peter escaped without responsibility, he had to deal with the guilt that it was him who held the mechanism that ended the life of Jerry. Peter had to face the rest of his life being aware of how others lived, and how one can feel so indifferent to the world as yet live in the very same part of the city.&n...

Electric Vehicles: :: Essays Papers

Electric VehiclesPolicy ConcernsElectric vehicles need the help of polity and regulations if they are to be successful. Currently, both state and the federal governments have implemented some(a) policies to help drive electric car technology. An example of this is the tax breaks some receive for owning an alternate fuel vehicle. However, the United States government is also precise involved in the petroleum industry. As a result the price of anoint remains artificially low and the prospect for clean air-alternate fuel vehicles even further down the road. Due to the fact that the oil industry can brook the politicians with more monetary influence, the government is still being slow on making the necessary policy adjustments that depart allow this new technology to start. nonpareil of the most major regulations is in California and is a mandate that ten percent of all new car sales in 2003 must be alternate fueled-zero emissions vehicles. However, as good as this seems it has bee n tried before to no result. The big car manufacturers got together and used their power to overcome this law and non create alternate fueled vehicles in the turnings that were asked by the board. Because of this the year the mandate would take effect has been pushed back over and over again. 2003 was the latest procrastination, and we will see how much happens now. There are in fact other policies that might have an effect. The Clear Air arranges Amendment (CAAA) has setup a list of requirements for original types of vehicles. These are guidelines initially setup in the 1970s by the Environmental Protection Agency. They have since been updated in 1990. They have said that a certain number of municipal fleets must be low-emission vehicles. However, these can still be run usually gas, they just must not pollute too much. The EPA has been working very hard to push vehicles that do not pollute. However, they are mostly interested in vehicles with low emissions instead of zero. Beca use of this the internal combustion engine has been able to reserve up and reduce their emissions enough to remain legal. If the EPA wanted to really make ground they would need to pass policy that will create radical exchange due to a zero emission policy. Another set of policy that was passed by the federal government is known as the Alternative Motor Fuels Act of 1988 (AMFA). This is a mandate that the Department of Energy create certain guidelines that consumers can use to accurately compare alternate fueled vehicles to gas powered vehicles.