Computing Research Projects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words - 1

Computing Research Projects - Essay ExampleIntroduction World Wide network in our societies slightly the globe is now a common phenomenon and accessories that facilitate this phenomenon like a web browsers does not only carry an immense occupation scope but they have become the representatives of the technology itself. Web browsers are the vehicles that carry you along the fascinating land of the web composition facilitating the use and eliminating the corporate trust on any additional software aids. Todays web browsers are supposed to provide possibly all functionalities that a web put has to offer and a surfer may need to enjoy his web experience. More importantly, web browsers need to meet the requirements of fetching information from all around the globe while warranting a complex integrated security mechanism. 1.1 Scope of Research Design and development of a web browser in the background signal of technological advancements of Information and Communication Technologies (I CT) and the ever increasing support requirements is a serious undertaking. It needs to support the cutting edge technologies, facilitate user while ensuring a pleasurable experience, playing and displaying nearly every possible format of information, securing browsing sessions, speeding up the designate completions, adding ability to save sessions and user special(prenominal) information, building abilities to recover from interruptions and breakups and the list goes onit knows no limits. While discussing the scope of an explorer Godbole and Atul ( 2008) states, It is the responsibility of the browser to display the document on the users screen when it receives it from the server. As a result, a browser consists of several large software components that work together that provide an abstracted view of seamless service. either day, there is a new change in technology, everyday there are new measures to be taken to ensure existence in the world of web browsing. The continued user s upport, maintenance and incorporation of updates are the tasks that demand serious and sustainable project management approach to suit the enormity of task in hand. 1.2 History The history of web browsers is nearly as old as that of the Internet itself. Majority of historians of computer sciences have accepted Tim Berners-Lee as the soften of the explorer technology. However, the Mosaic explorer by Andreessen team in the year 1993 gave WWW technologies a real boost. Later on it was Andreessen who formed Netscape Company that launched kickoff commercial explorer, the Netscape Navigator. It was not before 1995, when the Microsoft jumped into the explorer business with its first version of Internet Explorer to capture its foodstuff share. Since then the dominance in the market has been a tough fight among Internet Explorer, Opera, Netscape, Mozilla, Firefox, Safari and lately Google Chrome. (Cheshire, 2008). The history of web browsers development is a fast changing history because it had to keep footstep with the technological innovations in the field of computers, software, communications and the Internet. Today, browser development requires not only a bunch of technological expertise but it also demands a methodical project management approach. 2. Literature Review The purpose of this literature review is to investigate the emerging

Financial Statements and the Monetary Situation of Morrisons Essay

Financial Statements and the Monetary Situation of Morrisons - Essay ExampleThe report is aimed towards guide interested shareholders to rationally invest in Morrisons Supermarkets. Morrisons is one of the largest chains of supermarkets located in the U.K. The firm has their headquarters located in Bradford, England. Morrisons is counted amongst the big four supermarkets in the U.K, after Tesco, Sainsbury, and Asda. Currently, the company holds approximately 11% market share in the supermarket sector of the U.K. The company had initially begun as retailers of butter and egg in the social class 1899. However, the firm has remained successful in expanding itself and presently it has 515 superstores and 113 local stores spread across the U.K, England, Wales, and Scotland. The U.K supermarkets are highly competitive and also possess the ability to earn a very high level of revenues. Consumers, in general, are seen to gain benefits from such high competition as they are able to procure goods and services at reduced prices. The purpose of the paper is to understand how analysis of financial assertions facilitates better investments decision making. Income statements are prepared to estimate the level of profitability existing in a firm. They also indicate the efficiency with which an organization performs and earns revenue. Investments decisions are crucial as they may either cause a shareholder to earn equal to(predicate) profits or lose earnings on the capital invested. Shareholders face the risk of losing their savings if financial statement interpretations are not carried out effectively. The income statement is essentially a summary of the incomes and expenses of a firm presented in a summarised form for a particular period. By analyzing the incomes, expenses and the profits of a number of years, investors layabout understand how effectively a firm manages their internal operating expenses so as to earn sufficient profits.

Australian Economy over the Last Two Years Essay

Australian Economy over the Last Two Years - Essay ExampleIf you do not recover a reference, check your original document in case thither is a footnote that Viper has not detected. Viper impart show a match where there is a string of 5 or more vocalizes that are the same as your work. So it will identify fragments that match, which are not ineluctably plagiarism. It is important that Viper does not ignore these fragments as they draw your attention to any sentences where the writer has rephrased parts of the original material (keeping the initial structure) without giving due character. Sometimes, Viper will identify matching material that is available on websites, but which the Writer may have actually taken from somewhere else (and given proper computer address for). So the fact that the work has glut which matches a particular website does not mean the Writer has used that website. They may have obtained the material from another source. Viper checks for come in quotes - i .e. material included in quotation coifs like this. It will give you an overall percentage of words it thinks are direct quotes. Clearly, this should not be too high as work that relies too heavily on other material is not original. You should also check that all the direct quotes in your paper have actually been referenced by the Writer. Overall Plagiarism Rating This is a general indication of how much matching content the rake found in your work. As a guide Overall plagiarism rating 6% or less Highly unlikely to contain plagiarise material. A careful check will only be necessary if this is a lengthy piece (a finding of 6% in a 15,000 word essay, for example, would be of greater concern) Overall plagiarism rating 6 - 12% Low risk of containing any plagiarised material. Most of the matching content will probably be fragments. Review your report for any sections that may not have been referenced properly. Overall plagiarism rating 13 - 20% Medium risk of containing any plagiar ised material. There may be sections that match websites - you subscribe to to make sure that the Writer has given proper credit for these. The scan may not have detected quotation marks or footnotes that the writer has used (for example, if they have used an opening quotation mark but failed to close it) which could explain the higher result. Check carefully. Overall plagiarism rating 21%+ High risk of containing plagiarised material. If the overall rating is this high, you need to check your report very carefully. Dont panic - it may just be that there are a lot of matching fragments and the software has not identify all direct quotes (for example, because the Writer has used open inverted commas and not properly closed them, or has used an apostrophe rather than inverted commas for quotes. But you should go through the report very carefully to check that this is the case. Report for 586774.docx Overall content match 1% Direct quotes 0% of which 0% found online. positive conten t match minus quotes 1% Macroeconomics and Microeconomics Name Institution Macroeconomics and Microeconomics Students Paper and Microeconomics The Reserve Bank of Australia and the Australian Government has been http//treasury.gov.au/documents/1754/HTML/docshell.asp?URL=Ken_Henry_speech_to_the_Count_Financial_Canberra_Conference.htm action by the Reserve Bank of Australia and the Australian Government in response has been successful according to the data covering the last two years. In order to earn this success,

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan - Essay ExampleThis essay stresses that contend with the state of nature for both the simulated and natural human requires adaptability in contend with interactional challenges, in addition to moral challenges. Nature is considered sovereign as it is the art of matinee idols creation and governing of the world. Interaction with nature, on that pointfore, requires some adaptability and coping skills for both the natural and unsubstantial man. The artificial and the natural humans must adhere to certain conditions provided by the natural law for easier interaction and/or coping. Hobbes describes the artificial human or commonwealth as sovereign over the natural man, contrary to the fact that the natural man is considered sovereign over other artificial things.This paper makes a conclusion that the statement is misguiding due to the clear relationship between the divine, civil and natural laws. The natural law is all-inclusive to the human species, with God as the sovereign power or authority. The moral law of nature provides the human with character transformation and adaptability, happiness, virtues, and the imperatives and moral obligation of good and evil, for the good of the human. Hence, there is a clear difference and distinction between natural justice and the legal conventions of both the natural and artificial man. The critics to Hobbes work, such as Gauthier, are a clear indication of the discrepancies and contradictions in his work, and lack reliable evidence to support his conclusions and perceptions on the natural law.

Texting Essay Example for Free

Texting EssayTexting trading written messages over cellph adepts and other devices is changing the instruction good deal communicate, (Janet). editor in chief Debra Nussbaum writes in an article from the Philadelphia Inquirer that by the early 2000s Americans sent more than two trillion schoolbooks a year, by 2007, schoolbooking had exceeded phone calls by a long shot. This has definitely made a huge difference in the way pack communicate with each other. To get a letter in the mail is pretty r argon today especially knowing that a school text will reach a loved one tout de suite. This is most(prenominal) definitely the generation of instant gratification and having no patience, however, that can be a good intimacy in certain situations. Emergencies be also world relayed instantaneously as well along with important notifications from cell phone companies and colleges. Adults atomic number 18 jumping on the band wagon to await in inter-group communication with thei r kids, who ar most likely tho going to communicate in a timely manner via text. There are many good things that take for come out of texting, still as usual with all good things there can be mucklesides.Last year, David Miller, administrator of Iowa Homeland Security and compulsion Management, said 911 text messaging will spread around the state and that texting is one fundamental tool in the next generation of communication with 911. In todays ships company, texting is a part of our culture, and even though there are many situations where texting has turn out fatal, in a situation like this one, texting has proven to be a more effective and safe way to communicate.Originally 911 texting was promoted for the hearing impaired and people with speech impairments but has recently come in handy in situations where communication with 911 needs to be quiet. If a homeowners house was being broken into they could text 911 instead of calling and eliminate putting them in a more dang erous situation, like being heard by the intruder. Along with emergencies becoming text savvy, texting has also proven rattling helpful for parents trying to stay in touch with their college bound children.Many college students are busy studying or hanging out with their friends and dont have time to pick up the phone and call home. Kim Leonard writes in an article form the Pittsburg Tribune explaining that major cell phone companies reported more people in the 40s and 50s are utilise texting to communicate with their sons and daughters on the go. Texting is second nature for teens and young adults these days but more times than not it isnt for adults. To help the not so text savvy adults many cell phone companies are making dictionaries with text-ese abreviations.These features are making it easier for parents to be able to communicate and stay in contact with their children as well as stay cool with the new lingo and handgrip up with their kids text language. Texting has grown dramatically beyond the teenage and 20-something thumb generation over the past year, in part because parents are beginning to use the cellphone screen as another channel to communicate with children who otherwise might not have much to say, (Johnson). However, parents arent the only ones trying to communicate with their children using texting, colleges are catching on as well.A newspaper source said one college chose to use whats called JANET txt to stay closer and keep in touch with the students in their own language. By doing this the college has made it easier to get ahold of students to inform them about papers due or class schedule changes or emergencies on campus. Paul Taylor, Network and Corporate Data Manager at Gateway Sixth Form College explains, On one occasion, the college had to close when our water supply was cut off, and we sent texts early the next morning when the supply was restored to tell students that the college was re-opening, (Gateway Sixth Form College).Th ese notifications are a megabucks easier way to communicate with busy college students and are being used by more than just colleges, today many cell phone companies will text you a notification letting you know your cell phone bill is due or if youve gone over your minutes. Theyre promoting phone text messaging plans that allow in families hundreds of messages, or unlimited use each month, (Leonard). These unlimited usage of minutes gives teens and adults as much text time as they could want causing people to vex more dependent on their phones.Unlimited usage might not be such a prominent thing when it comes to parents knowing where their children are when they are with their friends or have an important message to relay to them while they are at school. While their faces may be glued to their phones at to the lowest degree parents know kids will see the message. Because young adults rely on texting most would actually prefer to text then call thus altering the way teens commu nicate with each other as well. Texting is also cheaper because most of the time its free making communicating between teens much more convenient.There was a point in the not-too distant past when students who wanted to communicate with each other at school passed notes,(Prater). Today teens arent passing notes in class, they are texting. Christina Porter, a senior at OHS, explains that she prefers to communicate with her friends by texting rather than calling. Teens are relying on texting so much it can also be a bad thing as well. Instead of paying attention in class they are looking at their phones and waiting for their friend to reply to their text. Walking and texting has become a trend as well.People arent paying attention to whats going on around them anymore because their noses are stuck looking down at their phones. Some people may say that texting has ruined this generations ability to have a normal face to face conversation, that they are more antisocial or lack proper co mmunication skills. That may or may not be true but one thing that is proving to be true is that people arent just paying more attention to their phones while walking but brainish as well. Texting while driving has proven to be fatal which has forced many states to ban the use of any cell phone usage while driving.This is one of the huge downfalls of using texting as a form to communicate. Data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration reveals that nearly 6,000 people were killed last year in accidents caused by distracted drivers, and 515,000 people were injured. People feel like they are getting away with using their cell phones while driving because the police cant see the phone in the drivers hands if they are texting. Talking or eating doesnt require that you look away from the road, but texting does.That restless glance can make a huge difference Texting truck drivers are 23 times more likely to crash, according to a Virginia tech Transportation Institute stud y, (Its dum). Talk or text is the question people should ask themselves if they just cant detach themselves from their phones long replete to drive to the local market for more milk. Unfortunately teens, because they tend to be more attached to their phones, are the number one offenders of this crime. 46% of teenagers say they text while driving, according to a 2007 AAA study.A new video, made by a British police department, graphically depicts a texting teen crashing her vehicle and has no doubt made an impression on its 1. 8 million YouTube viewers, (Its dum). Hopefully it wont take a million teens experiencing their friends dying in car wrecks caused by texting to quite the bad habit. While texting and driving have been the cause of numerous deaths on the road, some would argue texting has been the killer of solicit as well. Regardless if people want it or not, the digital age has generated a new expectation for modern romance.Natural selection may be favoring the text savvy, jokester rather than the self-assured alpha male, (Has Texting Killed Romance? ). People dont risk walking up to someone they find fetching any more when its much easier to find out what their number is from an outside source and text them. Texting has changed the smooth talker to the smooth texter. We havent lost romance in the digital age, but we may be neglecting it, (Has Texting Killed Romance? ). Some would argue that yes, texting has taken the art of formal, face to face communication out of society but we are a constantly evolving world.Now we can send a text with a picture or talk via video massage. composition is definitely not going away either its just developed into a new form, instantaneous digital delivery. Hopefully we can come upon to appreciate the good things that have come from texting and all the other forms of communication. Soon we will be sending 3D images of ourselves on some kind of projector and possibly even talking into our hands. All in all texting is not going away and so we must learn to make it work for the better and not the worst.

The Lemba Clan, Are They Real Jews Essay Example for Free

The Lemba Clan, Are They Real Jews EssayIntroduction Walking through the Venda blank space shopping center in Thohoyandou, South Africa, R dai ae ta a ad a tm ,T aioe f Jws bo e . Gv g i a uznw vdo m n n si o e hts n o my e i rt r i n h d h hs i m pzl ytn i e l kh ep i da a l k e . cm f m I al l gi e uz d ei r ud o ,e xln ,Im Ba Jw We a er s eao t e tg o ae c o r n m aoT e hv poe iwt gns N t nowing what to say and non having heard nearly this g. hy ae rvdt i ee. o k h before, I let his statement pass. My time in South Africa was devoted to working with a victim empowerment program, but I continued to wonder virtually the idea of Black Jews.The Black Jew or Lemba population creates a blip on a cultural map of sub-Saharan Africa. When researchers discovered and studied them over the last fifteen years, the Lemba besides made a blip on the genetical map of sub-Saharan Africa. communicable compend of the Lemba has foc employ primarily on the Y chromosome, which is useful f or submiting variation among and distance mingled with populations. The Lemba genetic markers support the oral tradition which says the Lemba came from the north.This paper reviews biological and cultural studies of the Lemba and the correlation between genes and oral tradition to propose a biocultural history for the Lemba people. Biology Genetic Variation across Populations Much of the reflect of genetic variation has focused on dissimilarity between groups. Genetic variation over time is used to postulate about the federal agency and time of the origins of modern humans as tumesce as subsequent movement and migration. Genetic variation is the enceinteest in Africa, and it is reas angiotensin converting enzymed that the longer a group has been around, the to a greater extent variation it will stir in its gene puss.Additionally, the longer groups are apart, the greater their genetic distance (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). Maps of variation order migrations ou t of, around, 1 and affirm in to Africa (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). Based on comparison of genetic landscapes, maps by Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza (1995) show the arrival of Neolithic cultivators in northern Africa 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. The migration of people continues down the east side of Africa, with groups mixing and moving.According to Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza (1995), the Bantu arrived in South Africa 300 to 400 years ago, and the archaeological and linguistic data support the history of Bantu expansion. Cavalli-Sforzat e o py gnt r aosi a gnr e t og ae g sr s f hl eece t nh s r ee t h uh vr e e o i li p e ad r a linkage analysis. artificial maps are produced from principle-comp binglent analysis of multiple gene frequencies. MacEachern (2000), however, criticizes Cavalli-Sozsn eio gns fr s yt s f ee a h s and language for its assumptions about the nature of language and groups and its lack of cni r i o t d e i o hm n oii .A r a e n ui a n tone, os e t n fh i rt f u a sc ts fcn t i n s r obudd d ao e v sy ee i hc t e homogeneous monoliths either frozen in place since before A. D. 1492 or caroming around the continent like cultural-ba n b lr blMaE ce ,00 7) G nr sn ec as er g ii d as ( c ahr 20 0. ee lyt t m p i la l n 3 a hi provide a visual representation of variation, but they do not show how the variation came to exist nor do they reveal anomalies. The Lemba are an anomaly in the genetic patterns of Southern Africa. Variation and the Y Chromosome The primary genetic research on the Lemba has used the Y chromosome for comparison with other groups.The Y chromosome has many characteristics that look at it favorable for investigating lineage. Almost all of the Y chromosome consists of non-recombining regions and the info is passed intact from generation to generation, from father to son. The variations, called pleomorphisms, occur so infrequently that they are comm promote called unique(p) event polymorphisms (UEP s) (Stumpf and Goldstein, 2001). UEPs occur along male lines in 2 accreditable time intervals, thus the changes can be compared between and among groups to examine relatedness and age by identifying variations (Bradman and Thomas 1998).More changes on the Y indicate an older line, and more shared ecological successions between Ys indicate a more similar gene pool. one time thought of as mainly junk, researchers have identified 20 different genes on the Y (Lowenstein, 1999). The function of Y is related to imparting maleness and to grandness (see figure 1). Figure 1 The human Y chromosome (Quintana-Murci et al. , 2000173) Because most of the Y does not recombine, the Ycrm sm ise a a ui r tl ho oo es en s n a n l p e ay t nm tdi ae ru r s ie l kg gop which allows the history of the paternal line to be deduced (Poloni et a t n al., 1997 1015). The non-recombining section of the Y has the potential for a large number of different mutations (Stumpf and Goldstein, 2001). Because most variation in the Y is not expressed, changes are not selected for or against, which allows the record of these changes gets passed on (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). Four types of changes can occur between generations microsatellites, minisatellites, snip and indels (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). Microsatellites are a section of repeats of a short 3 foot sequence and minisatellites are a section of repeats of longer sequences. Snips refers to single nucleotide polymorphisms, meaning one nucleotide is changed. Indels are insertions or deletions of desoxyribonucleic acid in a particular location (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). An example of an indel is the Y chromosome Alu polymorphism (YAP). Alu is a sequence of about 300 base pairs which is inserted into a particular region of the deoxyribonucleic acid. There have been about half a million Alu insertions in human DNA and YAP is one of the more recent (Bradman and Thomas, 1998).Because they are unique event polymorphisms, YAP inserts and sni ps are un seeming to have arisen more than once in evolution (Thomas et al. 2000). An Alu can be copied, but it is not removed from a locus. After an Alu change, the YAP will accumulate bare-ass mutations at the same roll as surrounding DNA loci. One can think of an Alu insertion as a fossil, and patterns of new mutation allow the fossils to be sorted into lineages. (Dolan DNA Learning Center 2002). Different combinations of polymorphisms are known as haplotypes (Bradman and Thomas 1998).The more similar the haplotype frequencies of two populations, the more similar their biological history is likely to be (Bradman and Thomas 1998). Quintana-Murci, Krausz, and McElreavey caution that genetic drift, founder effects, and male-specific migration processes may lead to over-representation of specific haplotypes (2001). Genetic drift refers to random change in gene frequencies between generations which will cause frequencies to fluctuate up or down (Releford, 2003). After enough time an d if no other forces are acting on a population, variation within a population will be reduced (Releford, 2003).The founder effect is a type of genetic drift where a subaltern number of people form a new population, causing allele frequencies to deviate from the parent population (Releford, 2003). The Lemba Y 4 If Lemba migrated from Judea and Yemen and maintained the tradition of marrying only within the group, the Lemba Y haplotypes may be over-represented when compared to the neighboring populations. Thus, the Lemba Y is useful for comparison with African and Semitic populations their contribution to the Lemba. More genetic evidence of a non-Bantu origin for the Lemba is expected and found (Bradman and Thomas 1998).The Lemba Y has an additional genetic marker that indicates links to the Judaic priest human body Cohen. Members cannot be appointed to this class and priesthood can only be inherited, thus a possible Judaic marker will be preserved down the line (Bradman and Thoma s 1998 Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza 1995). Judaism began in Semitic tribes living about 4,000 years ago in the Middle East. In 586 B. C. , the Babylonian exile spread Jewish populations out of present-day Israel (pounding et al. 2000). Hammer et al. (2000) used Y chromosome haplotypes to trace the parental origins of the Jewish Diaspora.Multi-dimensional scaling (figure 1 ) of frequencies of 18 Y-chromosome haplotypes in 29 populations produced three main clusters sub-Saharan African, North African, and European. 5 Figure 2 Multi-dimensional scaling from Hammer et al. (20006772) The Jewish cluster appears in between the European and North African population clusters. The Lemba population is set middle(a) between sub-Saharan African and Jewish clusters (Hammer et al. 2000). Genetic and geographic distances were not correlated for other Jewish populations, which supports a recent dispersal and subsequent closing off model.Hammer et al. conclude that m j pro o N Yb ll d e i .. a e to a common Middle eastern source a a r ot n f R ili i rt . t cs o i aec v sy r ppli svr t uad erao (00 74. h iue lo ea an c i s f ou t n ee lh sn ya g20 7) T i s sf frvl t g lm o ao a o s 6 s u ui a Jewish origins as well as for supporting old ties to the Middle East. Once populations dispersed from the Middle East, gene flow with surrounding populations was likely. The Lemba present genetic markers identified with Bantu and Semitic populations (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996 Wilson and Goldstein, 2000).Wilson and Goldstein (2000) examined 66 markers on the X chromosome to study the effect of admixture of Bantu and Semitic populations on linkage disequilibrium. Recent mutations will tend to have more linkage d eu i i (D t n i o eoe ( l n n G l tn20) h s n i n i qib u L )h wl l r nsWio ad o s i 00. T e i ic t s lr m a ld s de, g fa difference between partially linked and unlinked loci rules out substructure as the touch on source of the LD in the Lemba . . . Ethiopian-Bantu different iation is not sufficient to produce the d eu i i osre it L m a ( l n n G l tn20 2.T e oc s ns i qib u be dn h e bWio ad o s i 00 3) h cnl i i s lr m v e s de, 9 uo that the Lemba LD has two sources parental population and admixture.Another examination on the worldwide distribution of Y haplotypes (Poloni et al. , 1997) found a significant correlation between genetic and linguistic distances. The picture of genetic affinities places the Lemba not with other sub-Saharan African populations but with Afro-Asiatic populations (figure 2 ) indicating admixture or a different parent population from other subSaharan groups. 6 Figure 3 Multi-dimensional scaling from Poloni et al.(19971019) Spurdle and Jenkins (1996) also looked at Bantu-Semitic variations to establish genetic affinities and offer a model for the origin of the Lemba. Their study analyzed allele frequencies of Y-linked Restriction Length Fragment Polymorphisms (RLFPs). Ht4 is a true Negroid haplotype and it is found in the Lem ba sample at a frequency of . 20, which indicates significant Negroid male gene flow into the Lemba (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996). Ht7, Ht8, and Ht11 are Caucasoid markers and the Lemba show high frequencies of these markers as well.These haplotypes seem to be typical of Jewish populations but also occur in Asiatic Indians, thus it is not possible to distinguish between Semitic and Asiatic Indian sources with these markers (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996). The allele frequencies of the Lemba are significantly different from those of the Bantu-speaking Negroid population and the European population but not from those of the Jewish group. Spurdle and Jenkins (1996) conclude that 50% of the Lemba Y chromosomes analyzed appear to be of Caucasoid origin, and 36% appear to be of Negroid origin. 7.One possible method for distinguishing a Semitic origin, versus a general Middle Eastern origin, of the Lemba is to make comparisons with the Cohen modal haplotype, which is dominant in the Jewish prie sthood (Thomas et al. , 1998). There are three castes of Jewish males Cohanim, the paternally inherited priesthood Leviim, non-Cohen members of the paternally defined priestly tribe of Levi Israelites, all non-Cohen and non-Levite Jews (Thomas et al. , 1998). If the Lemba Y has Jewish origins, the Cohen modal haplotype is expected to be present. Thomas et al.(2000) continue the study of Bantu and Semitic markers in the Lemba adding the investigation of the Cohen modal haplotypes. Y chromosomes were analyzed for six microsatellites and six biallelic markers in the Lemba, Bantu, Yemini-Handramaut, YemeniSena, Sephardic Jews, and Ashkenazic Jews. The twelve polymorphic markers were characterized in multiple Jewish populations and identified single haplotypes (Thomas et al. , 2000). Genealogical trees were drawn based on microsatellite variation to explore possible origins of the Lemba Y chromosomes (Thomas et al., 2000).The trees can be used to assess whether severally Lemba haplotype has a close genealogical relationship with one or more haplotypes in the other five populations. Trees for the individual haplotypes were drawn for each UEP group by measures of average squared distance and proportion of shared alleles (Thomas et al. , 2000). Thomas et al. (2000) designate 67. 6% of Lemba chromosomes as having a Semitic origin and the other 32. 4% to have a Bantu origin.The high frequency of the Cohen modal haplotype in the general Lemba population supports a Jewish contribution to Lemba gene pool found. The Cohen modal haplotype is observe only moderately in Ashkenazic and Sephardic Israelites, in a single Yemeni, and is present in a very low frequency in Palestinian Arabs (Thomas et al. , 2000). The genetic evidence is consistent with the Lemba oral history of Jewish origins in a population outside of Africa followed by admixture with Bantu neighbors. 8 Culture verbal tradition and Origins of Lemba The Lemba people claim ancient Jewish origins. According to ora l history, they come from Judea, from whence they traveled to Sena.From Sena they crossed into Africa, moving down the coast, building great cities in Zimbabwe, and finally settling the northern part of South Africa. Additionally, the Lemba assert Jewish identity through their customs of food prohibitions, ritual slaughter of animals, and circumcision (Buijs, 1998 NOVA 1999 Parfitt 1992). These are not black people who have been recently converted to Judaism. Judaism is not a proselytizing faith thus conversion and intermarriage as an explanation for Jewish genes is unlikely (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995).However, many groups across the world claim connections to lost tribes of Israel (Parfitt, 1992). Furthermore, the surge in Lemba Jewish identity is connected to political economy and other favorable circumstances in South Africa in the last fifty years (Buijs, 1998). The Lemba say they came from the North, possibly from Judea. Then they went to Sena, they crossed Pusel a and came to Africa, where they broke the law of God and were befuddled across African nations (NOVA, 1999). Parfitt (1992) located Sena in a remote valley of Southern Yemen.Parfitt reasons that Pusela is similar to the Masilah River, which they would have had to cross to get from Sena to the sea. The port town of Sayhut was used for Arab exploration of Africa. In Hadramaut, the valley where Sena is located, tribes have the same names as Lemba tribe names (NOVA, 1999 Parfitt, 1992). Genetic samples of Lemba and of people in the Hadramaut showed similar features as well as the Cohen modal haplotype (NOVA, 1999). Lemba Identity in South Africa 9 The Lemba cost in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, but according to Buijs it is only in South Africa where one finds the belief of Jewish origins (1998).The Semitic identity was propagated by early white missionaries and colonial officials their writings emphasized differences of the Lemba by comparison with European Jewish communiti es (Buijs, 1998). T ee ri supr d a e o o a ii tdn t (u s19 1. u s19) o s hs w in have it away n t s f d t ci ty B i,98 6) B i (98 nt tg e h sn e i j 6 j e that the Lemba were aware of their distinct cultural heritage prior to colonization, but when ethnic identity became important in Apartheid, the Lemba pagan Association (LCA) became a m d mfrosut g peet a Jws H rae B i asr,T eniec ..n ei o cnt cn a r n dy e i e t . u s s t h i s ne .O u r i s h ig j es st their Jewish heritage is a direct result of the struggle for resources, initially land and later well-mannered sri j sit N r e Tasaln V na (98 6) Ietyi l i r i ad e c o , h ot r r vaad ed19 2. dn t n u n a a n ve b n e hn n 6 i, c d g c l ethnic identities, is not a static concept. Identity, especially during Apartheid, was tied to power.The Lemba heathen Association was founded in the 1940s when Europeans were encroaching o r or s T e C polm d spr e u uai n tadh L m a i pr ne n e uc .h L A rc i e a ea tcl r d ty n t e b m ot c s e a a t l ei e s a identified the Lemba with a non-African community (Buijs, 1998). During Apartheid, literally meaning separation, people were classified by race white, cl e,n b c. nsc laaits e df e acri tt s cnet( e o r ad l k O e oi cpb ie w r e nd cod go h e ocp s od a s a li e i n e se Mandela 1994 for a first hand description of the Apartheid system). The Apartheid government, the white minority, knew that if black people were united, the white autonomy would be threatened.They instituted a Bantu education system that further classified blacks according to tribe and encouraged local identity and rule in hopes of keeping blacks divided (Mandela 1994). In the 1980s, as the white hold on power was becoming more and more challenged, the gvrm nc a d i eednhm l d h h e stp uhhthy e sl oe etr t dpneto e ns w i w r eu sc t t w r tl n ee n a c e a e ei 10 overseen by South Africa but the government no longer provided money or serve to these areas. Lemba in Venda Vendaland was created and within these bounds were the Lemba.Before the independent hm l diw saoalfrBak e s ti n f t m e e ad e e o e n, a f r eo l Jw o d tyh sl s n b r a t v b c ei e v cognized as Lemba, because they were associated with whites and considered superior to other Blacks. However, in t l k o e n,w e b cseu t io n oe m n ibcm m rf oalt h Ba hm l d hr l k stph r w gvr et tea e oe a r eo e c a e a e n , v b be Black and not associated with whites. A highly placed civil servant in Venda government cm et i t V na e e a etgop I t s dy w w rl h o m n d t h ed w w r n le ru. nh e as e e i t e wh e e i o e g -skinned .. .V nar t u l e sro uprl s . t C oe pol (a i,92 8. h h ed t a d si a otf pec s.. e hsn ep Prt 19 ) T i e ee k a h e ft 7 s refers to the days of their arrival in southern Africa. At the beginning of the century, in spite of the dark skin, the Lemba were commonly called valungu white men (Parfitt, 1992). The civil srate a e, sog s vrt n ge j ti , y e g L m a osmatter . . . e nr r d l a ee h g osu f em bi a e b dent v m k A n yi s n n B tson sh g s rgi w ogiiar u do y e b oi n19 ) T e ua so a t nst to g rn, s ti t tm L m a r i (92 7.h i a n t tb e g 7 status and identity of the Lemba has not been fixed and it has not always been Jewish.Proclaiming a form of Judaism is an event of the 19th century, but it does come from an o e cm la d eg u i n f ao (a i 19) h L m a e e a a i l my l r o p ct r i osd ti t n Prt 92. T e e b si d prc a t d, i e li e ic i ft z tu r h and used it as a government agency of ridding themselves of a rather ancient ambiguity at a time when new ambiguities were being created every dy (a i,9225. T e e b igop i aPrt 195) h L m as ru wt ft h particular traditional practices, and some say they are not a religious group but a cultural one (Sand, 2002).The Lemba culture today points to ancient Hebrew origins but some Lemba practice Christianity and Islam (Sand, 2002). The practices they do ascribe to ancient Jews would 11 not be iden tified as Judaism in the West, however they have adopted more Jewish traditions in recent years (Sand, 2002). Lemba today In post-Apartheid times, the Lemba identity is flourishing. They continue to have LCA meetings (Buijs 1998). Websites about their heritage and culture are published on the Internet. People in South Africa can identify themselves with whatever group or groups they please.About 80,000 Lemba live in the Venda area of the Limpopo Province in South Africa as well as the Johannesburg township of Soweto (Buijs, 1998 Sand, 2002). Lemba are also found in villages in the southwesterly region of Zimbabwe (Buijs, 1998 Sand, 2002). In the Venda region, people speak TshiVenda. Another day when Rudzani and I were walking through the shopping center, he called up to a man with a phrase I did not understand. With a twinkle in his eyes, he told me that was the traditional greeting for a Jewish brother.Again, I let that pass, thinking he could translate it to mean whatever he want ed since I did not know TshiVenda (a favorite joke of my friends there). In reflection and after research, I do not doubt the old Jewish ties and if I go back to South Africa, I will be sure to find out more. death The problem with constructing the history of the Lemba identity is that it has been passed down through oral tradition. When it was recorded at the turn of the twentieth century, it is possible the outside visitors were biased or intercommunicate a Jewish identity on the Lemba.Genetic data support the oral tradition, and genetic research has identified anomalies in the Lemba population. Across the articles, the same information about the oral tradition and culture of the Lemba was offered. Ethnographic study of the Lemba traditions, not in contrast to Jews or other Africans, is needed to understand what being Lemba means today. Further research considering political 12 economy, as Buijs did, will continue to fill out the picture of constructions and projections of ident ity for the Black Jews of South Africa. 13 whole works Cited Bradman N, and Thomas M. 1998. Why Y?The Y chromosome in the study of human evolution, migration, and prehistory. Science Spectra, 14. electronic document, http//www. ucl. ac. uk/tcga/ScienceSpectra-pages/SciSpect-14-98. html. , accessed November 19, 2002 Buijs G. 1998 Black Jews in the Northern Province A study of ethnic identity in South Africa. Ethnic Racial Studies, 21661-682. Cavalli-Sforza LL, and F Cavalli-Sforza. 1995. The Great gentleman Diasporas. Reading, MA Addison Weasley Publishing Company. Dolan DNA Learning Center. Genetic OriginsAlu Insertion Polymorphism. 2002. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Electronic document, http//www.geneticorigins. org/geneticorigins/pv92/aluframeset. htm, accessed November 19, 2002. Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, and B Bonne-Tamir. 2000. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 976769-6774. Hammer MF, Spurdle AB, Karafet T, Bonner MR, Wood ET, Novelletto A, Malaspina P, Mitchell RJ, Horai S, Jenkins T, and SL Zegura. 1997. The geographic distribution of human Y chromosome variation.Genetics, 145787-805. Lowenstein JM. 1999. Why the Y? California Wild. Electronic document, http//www. calacademy. org/calwild/spring99/counter. htm, accessed November 19, 2002 MacEachern S. 2000. Genes, Tribes, and African History. Current Anthropology, 41357-384. 14 Mandela, Neslon. 1994. Long Walk to Freedom the Autobiography of Nelson Mandela. Boston Little Brown Co. N V O l eL stbs fs e T dr a ir a alj re. 00( oe br O A n n. otr e o I al uo Prtse r b o ny20. N vm e i i r . ft m k e u 2000). Electronic document, http//www. pbs. org/wgbh/nova/israel/parfitt. html, accessed November 19, 2002. Parfitt, Tudor. 1992. trip to the Vanished City Search for a Lost T ribe of Israel. London Hodder and Stoughton. Poloni ES, Semino O, Passarino G, Santachiara-Benerecetti AS, Dupanloup I, Langaney A, and L Excoffier. 1997. Human genetic affinities for Y-chromosome P49a,f/TaqI haplotypes show strong correspondence with linguistics. American Journal of Human Genetics, 611015-1035. Quintana-Murci L, Krausz C, and K McElreavey. 2001. The human Y chromosome function, evolution and disease. Forensic Science International, 118169-181. Releford, JH. 2003. The Human Species An Introduction to Biological Anthropology, 5th ed. Boston McGraw-Hill. Sand, JP.2002.The Jews of Africa The Lemba of Southern Africa. Electronic document, http//www. mindspring. com/jaypsand/lemba. htm. accessed November 18, 2002. Spurdle, AB. 1994. The Y-ALU polymorphism in Southern African populations and its relationship to other Y-specific polymorphisms. American Journal of Human Genetics, 54319-330. Spurdle A. and T Jenkins. 1996. The origins of the Lemba Black Jews of Southern Afri ca evidence from p12F2 and other Y-Chromosome markers. American Journal of Human Genetics, 591126-1133. 15 Stumpf MPH, and DB Goldstein. 2001. Genealogical and evolutionary inference with the human Y chromosome.Science. 2911738-1742. Thomas MG, Parfitt T, Weiss DA, Skorecki K, Wilson JF, le Roux M, Bradman N, and DB Goldstein. 2000. Y chromosomes travelling south the Cohen modal haplotype and the origins of the Lembathe Black Jews of Southern Africa. American Journal of Human Genetics, 66 (2) 674-686. Thomas MG, Skorecki K, Ben-Ami H, Parfitt T, Bradman N, and DB Goldstein. 1998. Origins of old testament priests. Nature, 394138-140. Wilson JF, and DB Goldstein. 2000. Consistent long linkage disequilibrium generated by admixture in a Bantu-Semitic hybrid population. American Journal of Human Genetics, 67926-935. 16.

Scottish Traditions And Cultures

Scottish Traditions And CulturesThis is my English assignwork forcet on Scotland. I am going to talk about the fib of Scotland, the culture and traditions of Scotland and about the Sports in Scotland. The Culture and Sports are very close but I think they have to be explained a part. I believe you and myself learn from this assignment and have fun with reading. (As long you can have fun)The history of Scotland.The land that directly forms Scotland was in the prehistory part of the continent that now forms North-America, so Scotland isnt really part of Europe but a part from Laurentia. During the last interglacial, around 130,000 and 70,000 BC, Europe was fightmer than now and the Neanderthals found that there was a mild spell in Scotland around 40,000 BC so they settled in Scotland, but no traces of early humans have been found. After 40,000 BC Britain was torn apart by glaciers and Scotland wasnt inhabitable any more. After 9600 BC the ice retreated and Scotland could be inhabit ed again. In 8500 BC there were hunter-gatherers in Scotland and several settlements have been found and the first permanent settlements were found in around 3600 BC. In 2500 BC the Bronze Age entered Scotland and there has been found just about hill forts from probably 900 BC which shows us that the people in Scotland were quite good in building settlements and monuments. Around 800 BC the Iron Age entered Scotland and boulder clay the invasion of Roman Empire Scotland was a peaceful inhabited by Celtic tribes. This was a short summary of the prehistoric history of Scotland but no written records were found work on the invasion of Scotland buy the Romans, now Im going to talk about the Roman Invasion of Scotland and what happened later that. England was invaded by Julius Caesar in 54 BC but Scotland fought more than 100 long time later because Caesar couldnt get to Scotland. In AD 43 Britain was invaded again and they lost a few battles heavy(p) ground to the Romans. Agricola w as the first one who attacked the people in Scotland itself and he got quite far but even though he had to let Scotland go after he didnt got re-elected for being the governor of Scotland. In 122 AD the Romans tried to protect themselves from the attacks of the Caledonians by the famous Hadrian wall. The Hadrian wall was started by governor Hadrian and ended six years later to protect them for the raiding tribes. The Romans tried to build a second wall to conquer more land called the Antonine wall but broke it polish off because it was unnecessary. When the Romans retreated from Britain in 407 AD Scotland of now was set in 4 split with each part its own king and people. They were the Picts, the Scots, the Angolans and the Britons. In 563 AD angel Columbanus, a monk, came to northern Scotland and Christianity spread rapidly. In 843 the Picts and the Scots united under king Kenneth MacAlpines reign in Alba (later Scotia). The weird thing was that the Picts just threw their culture away(predicate) to take the Scots culture. The Angolans went south to England and the Britons lived in the lowlands and since 890 the Vikings lived in the western Isles and operated from there their attacks on Scotland. The next kings and queens were crowned on the stone of scone (stone of destiny) in scone. In 1034 under Duncan I his reign Scotland was united except the parts of the Vikings. In 1040 Duncan I was killed by Macbeth, who got beaten by Duncan I his son Malcolm III. In 1066 England was overcome by William the Conqueror and in the years after that, Malcolms son David I Scotland conquered a part of north England. After that till 1268 Scotland started to grow economically and culturally. In 1268 Alexander III died and with no follower than 3 year old Margaret, forced Scotland to crown Margaret as queen. In 1290 Margaret died and non less than 13 men said they had right at the throne. But Edward I of England called David I as king of Scotland. David I and France started an alliance against England. As response on this Scotland lost parts of the lowlands to England . In 1290 Robert I tried to recapture them and In 1320 Scotland was announced as supreme country by Robert I but England didnt recognized this declaration till 1328. From 1371 till 1603 there were some conflicts with England and Scotland tried to increase their relation with France and it all happened under the reign of the Stuart family. The last Stuart king was Henry V who got the throne in 1603 but he made so much trouble with his lust for power that he had to flee to northern England, and caused a civil war in 1642. The civil war was won by Oliver Cromwell with his New Model Army. He called England, Ireland and Scotland as one republic without a monarchy. But in 1660 Cromwell was dead already and Charles II came on the throne. pile VII followed him when he died but was set off by the parliament and Willem of Orange was called to be king of Britain with his wife Mary. James V fled to France but some of the Scottish were still faithful to James VII (the Jacobites). The Jacobites on 27 juli1968 Willems army lost a battle from the Jacobites. In 1702 Anne followed Willem as queen of Britain but the parliament was determined to keep the Stuarts of the queen. So they parliament went to Sophie of Hannover the granddaughter of James VII and they told Scotland if they accepted her they would get trading privileges. But England and Scotland had to meet in one parliament. In Scotland there were some riots but in 1707 the offer was accepted and Scotland wasnt a state anymore and had no parliament. Economically it was a good case for Scotland but there were still people especially highlanders who wanted the Stuarts as kings and queens. Charles Edward Stuart was a grandson of James VII and he started a war with his Jacobites against England in 1745. But in 1746 he got defeated after the battle of Culloden and had to flee to Italia. After this battle it was forbidden to wear any skirts, play bagpipes and the clans were not allowed to exist anymore. They switched from livestock-farming to sheep cultivation and potatoes were the most important food in the highlands. When the potato harvest went wrong loads of people went to America (not the VS) and the big cities for work and food. This was a period of grow in economics, literature and culture so Scotland changed in the 18th century from one of the poorest countries in Europe to a normal economically growing land. In 1999 many years later Scotland got its own parliament again. It counted 127 seats in the parliament these are the partys who got seats 47 Scottish guinea pig Party,46 Scottish Labour Party, 17 Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party,16 Scottish Liberal Democrats, 2 Scottish Green Party, 1 independent